Main image: Nineteen by Ernest Edmonds, 1968/9, made using a FORTRAN program that computed the arrangement of a grid of square relief panels
Published 29 September 2026. By Adrian Murphy
[They were asking] how can we push technology? How can we manipulate it? How can we use computers creatively
Computer Art Historian, Catherine Mason
The emergence of computer art in the 1960s
In the 1940s and 1950s early computers were the preserve of the fields of defence, science – including weather and climate science at the Met Office – and business (with LEO I the first business computer in 1951). It wasn’t until the beginning of the 1960s that individuals began to explore their capabilities for artistic endeavours.
This was a time when computer engineers became artists and artists became computer engineers as they sought out rare, room-sized early computers, some costing millions of pounds, and began to expand what digital technologies could achieve. They would often work late into night to gain access to these mainframe computers that were used during the day for complex calculations and simulations.
These innovative artists would spend weeks and months on projects as they slowly mastered foundational hardware (sometimes using punch cards), creating algorithms, schematics and blueprint concepts. This resulted in many firsts such as the creation of computer-generated animated centipedes and interactive media, the curation of conferences and exhibitions, organised to explore and showcase the nascent medium – and the technology that facilitated it – and the establishment of a computer art society to share ideas.
“There was a very small number of people at the beginning because it was difficult, and it demanded long hours and dedication,” says computer art historian, author and curator, Catherine Mason.
It attracted a certain type of person
“And it attracted a certain type of mindset, a type of person who was interested in logic, who was interested in mathematics, who was interested in underlying laws of the universe, discovering what these are and how we can set up a system to make art according to a set of rules, a set of instructions, an algorithm.”
In the spring of 2026 Archives of IT’s CEO, Tola Sargeant, interviewed Mason on her work documenting the early pioneers of the medium, which is the inspiration for this article.
Mason has spent more than 20 years, from the early 2000s, recovering and documenting Britain’s computer art pioneers and their role in the development of the medium. At Birkbeck, University of London, she was part of a small team that established the CACHe project in 2002 to research and collect the stories of the origins of computer art and its trailblazers.
Their efforts led to the V&A reigniting its digital art collection and accepting the donations of major archives including that of the influential Computer Art Society, which, as a result of the project, was relaunched after a hiatus.
The project was also pivotal in the writing of two books on the subject: A Computer in the Art Room: The Origins of British Computer Arts 1950-80 by Mason, published in 2008 and White Heat, Cold Logic: British Computer Art 1960-1980 published by MIT Press in 2009, edited by Mason, and her CACHe colleagues, Paul Brown, Charlie Gere and Nicholas Lambert. The latter book’s title encompasses a slogan taken from the 1963 Labour party conference in which the Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, said Britain would be ‘forged in white heat of this revolution’ referring to the UK’s burgeoning computer industry.
AIT interviewed one of the pioneering British computer artists, Ernest Edmonds in 2023, as well as the US computer artist, Dr A Michael Noll in 2022. Here we fuse together these interviews as we document the milestones in the history of computer art with these personal accounts and look to the future development of digital art in AI and Quantum Computing.
Defining computer art
According to the V&A, the term computer art in the 21st century is ‘mainly thought of as a historical term, referring to work produced during the second half of the 20th century, utilising early developments in computer technology’.
Computer art can be defined as any artistic work or practice where computers play a role in producing or displaying the final pieces, which more suited the field from the 1960s-1980s. A more modern, broader term would be digital art, encompassing any art that uses any digital device.
One of Britain’s earliest examples of computer art is the work of Desmond Paul Henry who created his first electromechanical drawing machine in 1961, using an adapted analogue Bombsight Computer. Encouraged by fellow-artist LS Lowry, his drawing machine-generated artwork was shown at the Reid Gallery in London in 1962 as part of an exhibition featuring his traditional artwork.
Dr A Michael Noll’s computer art Turing Test
Over in the US in the summer of 1962, Dr A. Michael Noll programmed a digital computer at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey to generate visual patterns solely for artistic purposes and experimented in recreating a Mondrian inspired piece of digital art.
“Somebody at Bell Labs mentioned a series of paintings by Mondrian that featured vertical and horizontal little bars,” he told AIT. “I looked at it and decided black and white was easy to do on the computer so I had the computer programme its own versions of it.
“I showed the painting and the computer version to 100 people and asked which they preferred. The majority preferred the computer version. I asked which did they think had been made by a human and which by a computer and the majority got it wrong.
“In effect, it was a Turing example. It wasn’t designed with that in mind but in the end, it was something of the Turing Test.”
Dr Noll also used a computer to create an animated version of his initials which gave the illusion of the 4th dimension and a ballet sequence with stick figures.
Cybernetic Serendipity – the world’s first international computer art exhibition
One of the standout developments in computer art in Britain was the Cybernetic Serendipity: The Computer and the Arts exhibition from 2 August to 20 October, 1968 hosted by the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London. This was the world’s first international exhibition of all aspects of machine-driven and computer-aided creative activity from art and music to poetry, cybernetics and robots.
Curated by Jasia Reichardt, a British art critic and curator, it was a huge assembly of 325 participating computer artists and was of significant importance to the Labour government of the time with its Minister of Technology, Tony Benn, opening the event.
“Many of the pioneers that I interviewed went to visit, or were exhibited at Cybernetic Serendipity, and Jasia spent three years researching the field, fundraising, travelling and planning to put on the exhibition,” says Mason.
The Flexipede
Cybernetic Serendipity premiered Tony Pritchett’s ‘The Flexipede’ the first computer-generated character animated film in the world.
The Flexipede was produced over six months in 1967 on the University of London’s Ferranti Atlas 1 computer (which cost an estimated £2 million), where Pritchett was working at the Institute of Computer Science and written in FORTRAN IV. He had been influenced by the computer animations being developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories and possibly by the work of the aforementioned Dr Noll.
“His name ought to be as well-known as Steve Jobs but it’s not because this field has been overlooked historically in the UK. It’s just a marvellous example of British ingenuity,” says Mason.
In 1982 Pritchett animated the Channel 4 logo for the launch of the new TV channel, working on British computer graphics pioneer John Lansdown’s Tektronix 4014, a BASIC-only graphics computer. It was finally rendered in the US on a Foonley F1 supercomputer at the Los Angeles computer technology company, Information International Inc.
• A further standout object on show at Cybernetic Serendipity was SAM (Sound Activated Mobile), a kinetic sculpture by the artist Edward Ihnatowicz created in 1968. Ihnatowicz was an early pioneer of computer-based and cybernetic art and SAM explored interactions between sculpture and audience and was among the first computer based, interactive robotic works of art.
Computer Arts Society established
The Cybernetic Serendipity exhibition led to the founding of the Computer Arts Society (CAS) in 1968. CAS was established to encourage the creative use of computers in the arts. The group was given the status of a special interest group of the British Computer Society (now the BCS, Chartered Institute for IT) to aid it in its early organisation.
“The founders, Alan Sutcliffe, George Mallen and John Lansdown, had attended Cybernetic Serendipity and thought how wonderful it was, and that they ought to gather together like-minded people who had an interest in this type of technology,” says Mason.
Sutcliffe was a programmer at International Computers Limited and said his employers were always supportive of his outside artistic endeavours, offering allocation of time on the mainframes, which he undertook mostly outside of peak hours.
Event one
In 1969 CAS organised its first exhibition, Event One, at the Royal College of Art in London, featuring work across multiple disciplines. It is regarded as another key component in the development of computer art in the UK and globally.
The Event One programme introduction also laid the foundations for the CAS mission:
“The aims of the Society are to promote the creative use of computers in the arts, and to encourage the interchange of information in this area,” it said.
“The term COMPUTER will be applied broadly, to include machines and techniques with computer-like functions providing scope for programming, which explore new creative possibilities. All arts, pure and applied are included. Many of the ideas and methods for the creative applications of computers and programming apply to more than one art form.”
The Leicester pioneers
At the same time Ernest Edmonds, interviewed by AIT in 2023, who was working as a lecturer in computing at Leicester Polytechnic, had begun using computers for his art work.
In 1968 Edmonds was working on a relief painting called ‘Nineteen’ (see main image) and needed to use the college’s spray paint facilities to achieve the finish he wanted.
Edmonds met fellow computer art enthusiast, Stroud Cornock, who worked in the Polytechnic’s college of art and was also interested in new media and what it meant. Stroud was fascinated to discover that Edmonds had used a computer program to complete the design of the work.
Ernest says of Stroud: “He was important because he had been working with Roy Ascott [at the time a lecturer and pioneer in interactive computer art] and was interested in new media and whatever it meant, and so when he learnt that I was also programming, he helped me with the spraying, but we also became friends and talked about all this. I realised that this use of a computer was really an important step forward in my art.”
In 1969, Edmonds began working alongside Martin Campbell-Kelly and Mark Lee and together they would go on to teach human-computer interaction.
For more information on Edmonds’ ground-breaking work on human-computer-interaction read AIT’s in-depth report on the subject: From Punch Cards to Brain Computer Interfaces: 75 Years of Human Computer Interaction and its Impact on Society
“Mark, Martin and I shared an office and we were interested in things like computer graphics, which was very new in those days. We were interested in pushing the world forward, looking at what next would happen in computing,” he says.
A paper on computer art and a symposium
The following year Stroud and Edmonds developed and interactive artwork, Datapak and an academic paper: The Creative Process Where the Artist Is Amplified or Superseded by the Computer. They showcased their artwork and read their paper at the CG70 international computer graphics symposium and exhibition at Brunel University in 1970, where they told the audience that the future of computers in art would be interaction.
At the time Mark Lee, who had become a human-computer interaction researcher and teacher, negotiated the purchase of a computer graphics facility for Leicester Polytechnic which included a graph plotter.
“It was something that could draw lines. I used that to develop my first interactive artwork with Stroud in 1970. This whole process was something that I worked with those four people to talk about the future.
“What I was trying to do [with Datapack] was to explore in my art what the implications were of this new technology, because what I realised in the early 1970s was that it wasn’t just computation, it was also communication that was really important. The internet was just beginning when I was building the network art piece called ‘Communications Game’.
“So, we didn’t have networks or the internet and although ‘Communications Game’ is a networked artwork, I built it by designing logic circuits and building them with a soldering iron. I didn’t have the software … the whole idea was that people were interacting with one another through the artwork. Now it’s all normal because that’s what we do all the time, but at that time it was a new idea. The art was exploring the potential of these new developments in technology.”
Sean Clark, Chair of the CAS, says that in the 1970s, Leicester Polytechnic (now De Montfort University) and, in particular, its newly-established Human-Computer Interface Research Unit, went on to become important centres for computer art and Human-Computer Interaction research.
Leicester was at the heart of international computer art practice
“They attracted a cohort of artists and researchers to Leicester including Stephen Scrivener and then Dominic Boreham. Because of the work at the Polytechnic, it’s not unreasonable to say that in the 1970s Leicester was at the heart of international computer art practice and research.” Scrivener published many technical articles on computer graphics throughout the 1980s such as The Interactive Manipulation Of Unstructured Images, April 1982, featured in the International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. And Boreham created many plotter drawings from 1977 onwards and was also the editor of the Computer Arts Society’s PAGE magazine from 1979 to 1982.
Clark (who himself became a computer artist in the 1990s and was a student of Edmonds and had Scrivener as his undergraduate project superviser at Loughborough University) has led a series of recent exhibitions on Leicester’s computer art pioneers including one from November 2023 – February 2024 that included works by Edmonds, Cornock, Scrivener and Boreham. Then from 28 May – 28 August 2026 came Leicester Computer Art Pioneers II, which featured work by Susan Tebby, Pip Greasley, Dave Everitt, Bret Battey, Ashokkumar Mistry and Antion Roberts.
Computer ’70 exhibition and the EcoGame
Another major event in 1970 was the Computer ‘70 exhibition and trade show at Olympia, which featured the largest display of computer equipment in the world at the time.
Centre stage at Computer ’70 was Ecogame, the first digitally driven, interactive multiplayer, gaming system in the UK. The project was led by George Mallen, and collaboratively conceived, designed and built by 25 members of the CAS.
Mason, whose most recent book, Creative Simulations: George Mallen and the Early Computer Arts Society, was published by Springer in 2024, said Mallen had been a pioneer of early computer systems since 1962. He perfect for the job with his professional interest in the application of computer technology to educational systems and the study of organisational behaviour and computers being understood by all social groups.
Ecogame was a computer-controlled model of a capitalist ecosystem that simulated a national economy, allowing players to make decisions regarding resource allocation, showing them the consequences of their actions via slides projected onto the walls. It had been commissioned by a computer trade body that was organising the trade fair, which said they would make the project the centrepiece for the exhibition, which resulted in it being played by 5,000 visitors.
The cutting-edge use of technology
“The idea was that it would show the cutting-edge use of technology, what artists could do with it, what it could be pushed towards, in terms of simulation, in terms of interaction and participation. The Computer Arts Society people were very interested at that time in behavioural characteristics and were concerned with how computing could enhance decision making and benefit of humanity,” says Mason.
Ecogame consisted of around 700, 35-millimetre glass mounted slides showing various images on Kodak carousel projectors. Participants would be asked to produce various cost benefits in this economic model on a computer consul and their answers would determine which slides were displayed.
“Which meant they were also having an art experience, because they were involved in the production of imagery. And this is where the computing occurred. So depending on what your answers were, it would pop up a certain slide instantly and you were able to see the state of play at any given time. People could also stand around and watch, so it became a kind of spectator thing, a ‘theatrical spectacle’ they called it.”
How Ecogame worked:
• The Gameplay: It was a cross-disciplinary multimedia art installation and economic simulation model. Players sat at terminals and made resource allocation and planning decisions for a simulated national economy.
• The Consequences: A central computer calculated their actions and projected the “mood of the nation” onto the walls using automated slides. Poor management resulted in visual feedback showing dole lines, civil unrest, and severe environmental degradation
Ecogame was subsequently commissioned for the first European Management Symposium – the precursor to the World Economic Forum – in Davos in 1971.
“The way that it was set up, it could be used for any kind of simulation,” says Mason “Mallen recognised it would be of great use in decision-making and education. It would allow people to understand concepts that would be difficult to comprehend otherwise. And so I think this is why in Davos, it went down so well.”
An unrecognised art form – ‘a niche of niche’
Mason says the overriding message from the 1960s and early 1970s was how difficult computer art was to create and that it was a niche field.
“So, if you think of art as a niche, here we’re talking about a niche of a niche. So that is writing your own algorithms, writing your own code, trying to decipher, like Harold Cohen, [pictured left], did.”
Cohen was a pioneer in Artificial Intelligence Art with his code-based generative art, and his drawing program, Aaron.
He trained as a painter and represented Britain at the 1966 Venice Biennale and then in 1968 he became a visiting professor at the University of California at San Diego, where he was introduced to computer programming.
In 1971 Cohen took up a post as visiting scholar in the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at Stanford University where Aaron was developed. (For more on the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory see AIT’s interview with British computer scientist Professor Yorick Wilks.)
“He and the other pioneers were asking themselves, how can I distil everything that I know about being a painter into a system, into a set of rules, that will paint for me, so to speak, get the computer to produce work autonomously?
“But imagine going in at night and using the equipment when it’s not needed. This stuff was expensive, it was high tech, cutting edge. You couldn’t just have anybody going in there and twiddling away with it.”
Therefore computer artists of the 1960s had to build up a reputation and a relationship with technical engineers in order to work on the early computers. Alan Kitching, a British graphic designer whose pioneering work in computer animation createed the Antics 2-D Animation software in 1972, was one such example of an artist who would work late at night on a supercomputer in a laboratory.
“He told me the lovely story, which didn’t make it into the book [A Computer in the Art Room: The Origins of British Computer Arts 1950-80] because I didn’t feel it was academic enough. He was working at the Atlas Lab, Didcot and as an animator he would use the machines at night when they were not required for their usual scientific simulations. He would spend all night allowing his programme run. And he would get very tired and he would lie down and sleep on one of the desks in the computer room. And one night a watchman came by and saw this fellow stretched out and thought he was dead and was just horrified. And then pretty soon Kitching gets up to do something to the programme and the night watchman pretty much had a heart attack, because here’s this body rising from the dead. So there were lots of funny little stories like that.”
Challenging for art world to understand
Mason says that it has been problematic and challenging for the mainstream art world to understand that people who are actually technicians or maybe have science degrees, can also make art.
“These machines were not designed to make art, but they could be used in a creative way. And of course, that is something that all artists have done since probably the first person put their hand on a cave wall and blew around it and left their handprint.
“[They were asking] how can we push technology? How can we manipulate it? What can we do to use computers creatively? And that is something that runs through the whole of humanity, and it’s nothing particularly new with computing technology.
“It’s just that we happen to be in this era, living through it. And of course, for some people, this has been challenging, but now I’m seeing a lot of the younger generation are fascinated by technology and the history of computer art, and it’s very gratifying to me to see that many people are becoming much more interested in this history.
“When I started out back in 2002 nobody was interested at all and nowadays it’s very popular and digital art is booming.”
Changing the perception of computer art: The CACHe project
Changing the perception of computer art: The CACHe project
One of the projects that has helped to put computer art in its place as an important field of study regarding the country’s technological development is the CACHe project. This three-year project was established in 2002 at Birkbeck, University of London, to archive the early days of British computer arts, from their origins in the 1960s to the beginning of the 1980s. The project received a grant for £100,000 from the Art and Humanities Research Board.
Its catalyst was the death in 1999 of John Lansdown, an architect and computer graphics pioneer. Lansdown was an innovator of early CAD techniques in architectural design and planning, and a pioneer of computer graphics and animation. As well as being one of the co-founders of CAS he went on to become Professor and Head of the Centre for Computer Aided Art & Design at Middlesex University in 1988 and the university’s Lansdown Centre for Electronic Arts is named in his honour.
“He had a lot of archives and so too did George Mallen and Alan Sutcliffe and others involved in the Computer Arts Society. These included catalogues, artworks, two-dimensional works on paper and drawings. We were really tasked with just trying to find the scope of what this field was because it had never been historicised properly before,” says Mason, who had gained a degree in the History of Art at Birbeck College in 1993 and in 2002 returned as a PhD student and organiser of the CACHe project.
CACHe’s goals were to investigate and recover this history, ‘thereby confirming its cultural and aesthetic legitimacy’. Dr Nicholas Lambert, Research Fellow on the project, said of the name: “CACHe is a mildly punning acronym for Computer Arts, Concepts, Histories, etc. This reflect[ed] our mission in several ways. Apart from the obvious reference to computer memory, a cache can also be a hoard or collection of precious objects, usually concealed from view.”
Mason said the project ensured Britain took its place in the world as a pioneer in computer art. “Many other countries such as Germany and the US, were starting to write their own histories of digital art. And of course the UK would have been written out of that. So, this was a project put together by some great names including Paul Brown, Charlie Gere, Ernest Edmonds and George Mallen to tell this story. And that’s how I started talking to the pioneers in Britain. I feel very fortunate to have recorded a lot of their stories for the first time and featured them in the book, Computer in the Art Room.”
V&A Digital Art and Design Collection
One of the results of the CACHe project was the revitalisation of the V&A’s Digital Art and Design Collection, which is now a key British archive for computer art and holds more than 3,000 items. It began to collect computer-based artwork in 1969 when it acquired a set of prints published in conjunction with Cybernetic Serendipity.
However, the museum collected few items from then until the 2000s but during the CACHe project there was a renewed interest in digital art, which saw the collection expand.
In 2007 the V&A acquired the Computer Arts Society collection of around 250 artworks, as well as their administrative archives.
Then in 2008, Patric Prince (1942 – 2021), a pioneering American collector of digital art donated her collection of more than 260 objects including a large library of printed books, correspondence, photographs and ephemera in addition to the individual artworks. Prince was a key figure in early computer and digital art and was one of the first to recognise the importance and potential of these new art forms.
“And this was like a nucleus, and other artists wanted to donate things,” says Mason. “So the V&A really became the place to go for quite a few years. It wasn’t until much later that other museums started collecting computer art.”
Practitioners with works now represented in the collection include Ernest Edmonds, Paul Brown and Vera Molnar, to name but a few.
From 2007-2010 the V&A and Birkbeck led another three-year project supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council. The Computer Art & Technocultures (CAT) project further explored the history of computer-generated art.
As a result, the V&A launched a Digital Pioneers exhibition (with an accompanying book), which ran from December 2009 until April 2010, which was a counterpart to a wider exhibition Decode and the Digital Pioneers curated by the V&A’s Contemporary team. In 2010 the CAT project also held a symposium, Ideas Before Their Time, with the British Computer Society and Digital Pioneers Conference.
Douglas Dodds, Senior Curator, Word & Image Department at the V&A, who was one of the leaders of the CAT project, explained at the Digital Pioneers conference why the museum had essentially stopped collecting computer art from the 1970s onwards.
“The V&A’s Prints, Drawings and Paintings Department (as it was then called) went onto collect other works [in addition to the Cybernetic Serendipity prints] by computer artists, but these were few and far between. Notable examples include a number of prints by Manfred Mohr, from his Scratch Code series.
“At the time, computer art was seen to be deeply unfashionable among many art historians and commentators, and the V&A’s curators were probably influenced by this attitude. In hindsight, it seems fair to say that many of them did not anticipate the full significance of the emerging medium.”
AI in computer art
Above video: On poetry and code, with AI research and language artist Sasha Stiles
One of the major developments since the CACHe project began in 2002 is the proliferation of AI art. With its roots going back to the early 1960s with A Michael Noll and his computer-generated patterns to the early 1970s and Harold Cohen’s Aaron, it has been with us for 60 years.
However, back in the 1960s not everyone had a computer and mobile phones were decades away from being realised, which meant AI art was still highly specialised. Now AI technology provides each owner of a smartphone the ability to create a piece of art by giving a bot prompts, with the results completed within seconds, not weeks or months.
Since 2018 there has been a modern AI app boom with tools such as Generative Adversarial Networks capable of creating hyper-realistic fake portraits at extraordinary speeds. From 2021 tools such as DALL-E and Midjourney brought text-to-image AI to the general public’s fingertips – creating images matching a natural language prompt or description.
“I think the generative stuff that we get nowadays falls into different categories,” says Mason. “There are some very good artists who are interested in using these tools in a new and innovative way. And then there’s a lot of other stuff, which I think has been termed AI slop, that’s churned out.”
However, she says that it also gives artists a great opportunity to bypass the dealer/gallery network system and go straight to the collectors. “I can mint NFTs. I can do things myself, which is wonderful. You can reach audiences that were unheard of before.”
In her latest book, Creative Simulations: George Mallen and the Early Computer Arts Society, Mason mentions modern AI artists she admires such as Sasha Stiles, who uses natural language processes in her art (video above).
“It’s the people like this who are using it in a more considered way who I’m most interested in, but I’m very inspired by the younger generation. The people who make the AI Art Magazine, for example, are doing great stuff with AI. They’re on their third issue coming out very shortly, and I’ve been fortunate to write for them for all three issues. I do a little piece about history, so you know, it just gives some context. And maybe there are things we can learn from history of computer artists.”
Computer Arts Society and the future
The Computer Arts Society (CAS) also hit a slump in the mid-1980s and wound down its original iteration, which began in 1968. It was restarted in 2004 as a result of the CACHe project and is now enjoying a resurgence. The society organises the annual Jasia Reichardt Lecture and runs the Electronic Visualisation and the Arts conference in London.
In 2020 Dr Sean Clarke, Chair of CAS, also founded the Computer Arts Archive in Leicester, which works closely with CAS to preserve, exhibit and document foundational British and international computer and digital art.
Quantum Computing Art
In October 2025 Clark organised the Quantum Computing Art exhibition in Leicester, a collaboration between the Computer Arts Archive, CAS and Interact Digital Arts, of which he is director.
The work on display featured 10 prints each by Ernest Edmonds and Jonathan Knoblauch. “Alongside its practical applications, our work also explores another dimension of quantum computing: the underlying beauty and hidden imagery that emerge from quantum effects and subatomic particle interactions,” says Clark. “These phenomena offer fresh perspectives and visual interpretations not seen before, bridging science and art in new and imaginative ways.”
This exhibition and the ongoing research at Birkbeck and the V&A shows that the legacy of those early computer art pioneers is now as strong as ever and that digital artists are still pushing the boundaries of technology, manipulating it and using computers creatively.
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